Making up the Mind

"This first book is by Chris Frith, Making up the Mind, How the Brain Creates our Mental World . Everything that I have written has been based on the proposition that what determines our behaviour isn’t what happens to us but how we interpret what happens to us. The basis of that is what neuroscientists have been showing over the last 20-odd years, which is that the way our brain operates means that we can’t see reality directly but only the pictures that our brain creates. Chris is an academic psychologist and emeritus professor at University College London. He wrote this not as an academic book but to help the ordinary layperson understand the way our brain works – it’s very readable, although you do have to pay attention. There are two quotes I use over and over again. Here is one: ‘Even if all our senses are intact and our brain is functioning normally, we do not have direct access to the physical world – it may feel as if we have direct access but this is an illusion.’ I had two cataract operations recently, and of course you can’t see anything. The eye they are operating on has a bright light shining into it; you only hear the voices of the surgeon and his team. During the operations, particularly the first one where I was paying really keen attention, my brain was actually just receiving random sensations but of those sensations my brain created something meaningful. On my right side I could seen rings which my brain was turning into Saturn’s rings, which I had seen in a television documentary. And on the other side, where I was seeing light shining through the blue cloth in patches, what my brain did was turn it into a framed picture of a blue sky with white fluffy clouds. Yes, and drawing on past experiences because there is nothing else it can draw on. When our brains are creating these patterns they form a whole sequence of hypotheses. And the brain goes on with these guesses until it finds one that seems to be the closest: we see this in optical illusion puzzles such as the one where a vase turns into a face and then back again. For example, just before you arrived I thought I saw someone on the settee but it was cushions, because these new lenses, made out of plastic, are not the same as my original ones. Since the operations my brain is having to adapt to a different sort of stimuli and I keep catching it making these hypotheses. What is appalling to me, and this is why I keep writing about it, is that so many people don’t know about this constant hypothesising – and they don’t know how to bring this knowledge to bear in their personal lives or in their professional lives. Now if Alan Greenspan, as chairman of the Federal Reserve, had had this knowledge, had understood that everything is a hypothesis, he wouldn’t have carried out the kind of operations that he did, operations which were a very large part of what led to the economic crisis. And the same is true of the economists and mathematicians, the ‘quants’ as they call them – they wouldn’t have been so stupid as to create things like the CDOs [collateralised debt obligations] and to use them uncritically. Yes, it is all guesswork. These people simply underestimated how little they knew. Everyone should read this book and grasp this idea. The other element everyone needs to understand is what Chris Frith writes about the self. Another of the illusions that my brain creates is my sense of myself as an island of stability in an otherwise ever-changing world. But that is not what you are: you are just a stream of impressions flowing along, with your brain trying to make some kind of sense of them. And that picture is always changing, while all the interpretations are impressions. They are all guesses and theories, and they can easily be invalidated. When you come up against a major invalidation, such as happened to Alan Greenspan when the financial system was threatened with collapse, well, you simply feel yourself falling apart. Greenspan aged terribly during that period. He looked hale and hearty when he retired but then at the hearings in Washington and when interviewed about the crisis he looked terrible – he had that beaten look people get when everything just starts to fall apart. If Greenspan had understood his limitations, he would have been able to deal with finding out that he was wrong. The problem comes when people are not able to distinguish a fantasy from a truth. We can’t live without fantasies. For example, when you were coming here today you had a detailed fantasy, which you were constantly having to revise, about how you were going to get here and in what order you were going to do what this morning – if you hadn’t drawn up that plan as a fantasy you wouldn’t have been able to carry it out. Then there are also the comforting fantasies that we all enjoy and use. But you must remember to distinguish between fantasy and reality – I had a lot of unpleasantness from the Christians with my last book, which was on belief systems, because they were so offended when I said that religious belief was a fantasy. When I said, ‘Well, where is your evidence?’ they became offensive. So you can’t live without fantasy because you have to plan and you have got to be able to comfort yourself: consider that very popular fantasy about ‘what I would have said had I thought of it at the time’. It’s an extraordinarily comforting fantasy. You are lying in bed and you have finally worked out what you could have said and what you would say next time – that is actually how we learn, because we practise in fantasy what we can then do. That’s how children learn through play – it’s a vital part of learning."

"It’s by Chris Frith, Uta Frith’s husband, and it’s about consciousness, and how we are conscious, and how our brains enable us to be conscious, and to have awareness of the world around us. The point he makes is that, in fact, our conscious perception of the world is very different from what the world is actually like. Some parts of the brain process everything in our environment, but we’re not conscious of that; if we were, we would be completely overloaded with information. His main thesis in this book is that our brain creates an impression of a coherent world that makes sense, that we’re in control of. There are some nice examples from neuroscience showing that. For example, the studies by Libet from the 1980s in which he measured electrical waves in the brain to show that it produces something called a ‘readiness potential’ – about half a second before you make a movement, the brain starts preparing the movement. But what’s really interesting is that if you get people to estimate when they had the intention to move, that intention occurs many hundreds of milliseconds after the readiness potential. In other words, what seems to happen – and this has been replicated by many different experiments – is that your brain starts to produce electrical signals which prepare the movement before you feel you have the conscious intention to move. That’s just a very nice example of how our brain is constantly making us do things, but our conscious experience is actually constructed afterwards. The idea is that our brains are just reacting to changes in the environment, and this feeling of free will is completely illusionary. That’s the most extreme argument, but the evidence from neuroscience suggests that that could be the case. Other examples in the book are things like visual illusions, which are all based on the same principle – even if you know it’s an illusion, you still perceive the illusion; your brain is constructing a story. Another example is whenever you move your eyes around, you have what’s called saccadic suppression – a ‘saccade’ is an eye movement. We know that the eye is effectively blind during the movement, but we don’t experience that blindness, because our brain fills in the gaps. That’s quite a nice idea because there is a cache, based on previous experience, which the brain uses to predict what should be there. So the point is that we don’t just react to the world, our brains predict it way ahead of time. The other point about Chris’s idea is, if our construction of the world – our consciousness – goes wrong, then he argues that it can lead to delusions and hallucinations. The book is a real joy to read, because his style is quite chatty and he has a quite funny dialogue between himself and a fictional professor of English who’s highly intelligent, of course, but who knows little about the science of the brain."